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Category: Mumbai Protector
Cybercrime: The Deadly New Enemy
Cybercrimes know no borders and have evolved alongside emerging digital technologies. Each year, the number of reported cybercrimes in India continues to rise significantly, and the situation is worsening, says Ivor Vaz.
On a positive note, a vibrant India is on the brink of a digital revolution. Once primarily an agricultural nation, India is undergoing a dramatic transformation driven by the rapid advancement of digital technology and infrastructure. Economists predict that India’s digital economy will exceed US$1 trillion by 2027-28, with a robust annual growth rate of 2.8%. This growth is largely attributed to the exponential rise of digitalisation and data-driven innovation, which are fundamental to modern progress.
In recent years, India has emerged as a significant player in technology and services, transforming the global economy. With a wealth of talent and a thriving IT sector, India has become a hub for innovative ideas, software development, and outsourced business services. The country’s role in the global services landscape has evolved remarkably, establishing it as a centre of excellence and innovation, reflecting its abundant talent, technological capabilities, and business-friendly environment.
However, amidst this rapid digital growth, fueled by advancements in AI, automation, and data-driven technologies, a critical challenge emerges. While increased connectivity and a digital economy promise significant progress, they also expose our digital societies to new vulnerabilities. India has only just begun to develop a cybersecurity framework to protect its vast internet population—the second largest in the world. At the same time, cybercrimes continue to evolve at a pace that matches or surpasses emerging technologies.
Each year, the number of reported cybercrimes continues to rise significantly. In India, the most common type of cybercrime is financial fraud. Over the past few years, financial fraud has become a growing concern, with losses amounting to billions of Indian rupees annually. Between 2020 and 2024, these cases accounted for 75% of all cybercrimes in India, peaking at over 77%.
The increase in reported cases from 2019 to 2024 is striking with 26,049 complaints recorded in 2019, followed by 2,57,777 in 2020, 4,52,414 in 2021, 966,790 in 2022, 15,56,218 in 2023, and 7,40,957 in just the first four months of 2024.
The sectors most vulnerable to cybercrime include IT, healthcare, manufacturing, and finance. Small businesses are also frequent targets, especially since only 41% of Indian companies were at progressive stages of cybersecurity readiness in 2024.
Even though the private sector is heavily affected by online crime, government agencies have also faced incidents of espionage. A notable breach involved India’s unique citizen identification system, the Aadhaar Card, which compromised extensive personal information, including bank details, addresses, and biometrics of over a billion Indians. In 2024, the cost of data breaches in the country surged by more than $2 billion.
One of the major challenges in combating cybercrime in India is the lack of awareness regarding cyber hygiene. Even when crimes are reported to authorities, the existing infrastructure and processes for addressing such cases are largely inefficient. In 2018, India’s Ministry of Home Affairs established the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C) to provide a framework for combating cybercrime. The Central Government further launched the National Cybercrime Reporting Portal (NCRP) under the I4C in 2019. Additionally, the government has implemented a stringent content regulation policy for the internet and social media platforms. Another area that could help reduce cybercrime numbers is the expansion of the cybersecurity market. Increased investments in this sector can combat the growing threats likely to persist as the world navigates hyper-connectivity and the era of artificial intelligence.
Cybercrime: A Rising Threat to Internal Security
To effectively address the challenges posed by newer technologies and ensure the safety and security of our citizens from emerging cyber threats, it is essential for world leaders to collaborate and strengthen enforcement agencies.
Recent crime data published by the National Crime Record Bureau (NCRB) reveals a significant increase in registered cybercrimes, rising from 12,317 cases in 2016 to 65,893 in 2022—an increase of approximately 435% over seven years. In 2022, fraud, extortion, and sexual exploitation accounted for the majority of these cases.
According to the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (IC4), an official from the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) shared that more than three million complaints have been reported since the launch of the online portal https://cybercrime.gov.in by the Central Government in August 2019.
In cases of online financial fraud, if reported quickly through this portal or the national helpline number 1930, transactions can be blocked, potentially preventing defrauded money from reaching criminals, as over 263 banks are linked to this system.
In 2023, around ₹922 Crore of defrauded money (approximately 12.32%) was recovered, a notable increase from ₹36 Crore (about 6.73%) in 2021. Many online frauds have been traced back to countries such as Myanmar, Cambodia, Dubai, and China.
Before discussing how to prepare for and tackle cybercrimes and emerging challenges in India, it is important to analyse the impact of these incidents on our daily lives.
Impact of Cybercrime
In November 2022, the online services of the All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS) in Delhi were disrupted due to a ransomware attack on its servers, which are provided and managed by the National Informatics Centre. With the assistance of the national nodal agency for Critical Information Infrastructure Protection, the Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In), data for the ‘e-Hospital’ system was retrieved from a backup server, and most functions were restored on new servers after approximately two weeks. A case of cyber terrorism and extortion was registered under the relevant sections of the Information Technology (IT) Act and the Indian Penal Code (IPC). This case was handled by the Intelligence Fusion and Strategic Operations (IFSO), a specialised unit of the Delhi Police that deals with cybercrime.
The Ministry of Information Technology later informed Parliament that the servers had been compromised due to “improper network segmentation,” which led to operational disruptions due to the failure of critical applications. Preliminary analysis revealed that five servers were affected, and approximately 1.3 terabytes of data had been encrypted. The Minister clarified that no specific amount of ransom was demanded by the hackers, although a message on the server indicated that it was indeed a cyber attack. According to cyber experts, “improper network segmentation” suggests that the firewall meant to protect the network was not configured correctly, and the unmanaged switches lacked adequate safeguards. This inadequate cybersecurity allowed the hackers to corrupt the system. Furthermore, the IP addresses from the suspicious emails indicated that the attack originated from a foreign country.
Another incident that threatened the reputation and dignity of an individual was a deepfake video of a South Indian actor impersonating the face of a London-based Indian woman, which went viral on social media in November 2023. Although Meta and other social media platforms removed the video on their own, the IFSO wing of the Delhi Police investigated over 500 internet links, retrieved some deleted accounts, and successfully traced the origin of the deepfake. The accused confessed to creating the video to increase his Instagram following but subsequently deleted the posts and changed the name of his Instagram account. These two examples illustrate the significant damage that cyber-attacks can inflict on both strategically important institutions and individuals.
Legal Aspects
The IT Act of 2000 was enacted to stimulate the growth of electronic transactions and to provide legal recognition for e-commerce. It contains provisions to address computer-related crimes. Since then, various IT rules have been introduced to tackle specific issues, such as “reasonable security practices and procedures” and “national critical information infrastructure.” To regulate intermediaries and social media platforms, the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules were notified in February 2021.
The most recent development is the Digital Personal Data Protection Act of 2023, which aims to protect personal data and ensure its lawful processing. However, experience shows that simply enacting laws and regulations is insufficient; enhancing the capacity and capability of police forces to address emerging challenges is essential.
It is important to recognise that a regular police officer without a background in computer science cannot be expected to specialise in tackling computer-related offences. At most, such an officer can be trained to act as a first responder to preserve the crime scene and protect the integrity of electronic evidence. To effectively address the increasing number of cyber complaints, a sufficient number of cyber experts should be integrated into the police force, and dedicated cyber police stations should be established.
Additionally, while broad guidelines for the identification, collection, acquisition, and preservation of digital evidence are outlined in the Indian Standard IS/ISO/IES 20037:2012 issued by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), there is no separate procedural code for investigating computer-related offences. Furthermore, many State cyber forensic labs are not equipped to handle emerging challenges and have not been designated as “Examiners of Electronic Evidence” by the Central Government, which limits their ability to provide expert opinions on electronic evidence under the IT Act.
Although the newly enacted criminal laws emphasise the collection of forensic evidence, including recording statements using audio-visual means, and the Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam of 2023 establishes a standard format for the admissibility of electronic evidence in a court of law, the lack of training resources may hinder the development of effective police officers in this field.
The concept of “safe harbour” should be reconsidered to increase the accountability of intermediaries. The IT Rules of 2021 require intermediaries and social media platforms to exercise “due diligence” and make “reasonable efforts” to prevent users from hosting, displaying, uploading, or sharing any harmful information, especially regarding children. However, these platforms are only required to remove objectionable material within 36 hours if they are notified by an authorised government agency or if a court orders them to do so. They are not legally obligated to implement preventive or investigative online tools.
India does not follow either the American or the British model to proactively identify and block child sexual abuse material (CSAM). The lack of necessary cyberinfrastructure means that reports of CSAM uploaded from India are identified and geo-tagged by the American National Centre for Missing and Exploited Children (NCMEC), which then forwards these reports to the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) under an agreement with the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) for legal action.
Due to the limited liability of Internet Service Providers (ISPs) under the IT Act, no proactive measures have been taken by them. Although the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) has issued an advisory for social media platforms to remove misinformation and deepfake content, these measures will be insufficient and ineffective unless the platforms are required to deploy technical tools for identifying such content and reporting compliance. This would necessitate a revision of the “safe harbour” provision to make it more robust under
Section 79 of the IT Act.
Lastly, the cyber attack on the AIIMS Delhi system highlights that even institutions managing sensitive personal health data lack a robust cybersecurity policy.
The primary reasons for vulnerabilities that hackers exploit include the lack of periodic audits, the failure to identify system weaknesses, outdated technology, and a shortage of dedicated and trained personnel.
To address these issues, it is essential to allocate sufficient budget resources to related institutions and to foster a culture of cybersecurity awareness to prevent future attacks.
As the world works to establish mechanisms and regulations to mitigate the misuse of artificial intelligence (AI), law enforcement agencies are facing challenges in investigating new types of crimes. During the inauguration of the annual Global Partnership for AI (GPAI) Summit in Delhi in December 2023, the Prime Minister of India emphasised the importance of watermarking AI products and acknowledged the rising concerns about cybersecurity and data theft. It is hoped that collaborative efforts among world leaders will strengthen infrastructure and assist enforcement agencies in overcoming the challenges posed by emerging technologies, ultimately ensuring the safety and security of citizens against new cyber threats.
The Battle with Cybercrime
To strengthen the mechanism to deal with cybercrimes in a comprehensive and coordinated manner, the Central Government, through the Ministry of Home Affairs has set up the Indian Cybercrime Coordination Centre (I4C).
As per the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India, ‘Police Order’ and ‘Public Order’ are State issues. Hence, States and UTs are primarily responsible for the prevention, detection, investigation and prosecution of cybercrimes through their Law Enforcement Agencies. The Central Government supplements the initiatives of the State Governments through advisories and schemes for the capacity building of their Law Enforcement Agencies. To strengthen the mechanism to deal with cybercrimes in a comprehensive and coordinated manner, the Central Government, through the Ministry of Home Affairs has set up the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C) to deal with all types of cybercrime in the country.
The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) compiles and publishes the statistical data on crimes in its publication ‘Crime in India’. Its Cyber Crime Reporting Portal -https: //cybercrime.gov.in was launched, as a part of the I4C, to enable the public to report incidents about all types of cybercrimes, with a special focus on cybercrimes against women and children. Cybercrime incidents reported on this portal, their conversion into FIRs and subsequent action thereon are handled by the State/UT Law Enforcement Agencies concerned as per the provisions of the law. The ‘Citizen Financial Cyber Fraud Reporting and Management System’, under I4C, has been launched for immediate reporting of financial frauds and to stop siphoning off funds by the fraudsters. Since the inception of the Citizen Financial Cyber Fraud Reporting and Management System, more than ₹1,200 Crore have been saved in more than 4.7 lakh complaints. A toll-free Helpline number 1930 has been operationalised to get assistance in lodging online cyber complaints. The State and UT-wise details of the Citizen Financial Cyber Fraud Reporting Management System from January 1 to December 31, 2023, are in the Annexure. To date, more than 3.2 lakh SIM cards and 49,000 IMEIs as reported by Police authorities have been blocked by the Government of India.
The Computer Emergency Response Team is the National Incident Response Centre for major computer security incidents in the Indian cyber community. CERT-In issues alerts and advisories regarding the latest cyber threats/vulnerabilities and countermeasures to protect computers, mobile phones, networks and data on an ongoing basis. CERT-In, through RBI, has advised all authorised entities and banks issuing pre-paid payment instruments (wallets) in the country to carry out special audits by CERT-In-empanelled
auditors, close the non-compliances identified in the audit report and ensure implementation of security best practices. CERT-In and the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) jointly carry out a cybersecurity awareness campaign on ‘beware and be aware of financial frauds’ through the Digital India Platform. To enhance the mechanism for addressing cybercrimes comprehensively and in a coordinated manner, the Central Government of India, through the Ministry of Home Affairs, has established the Indian Cybercrime Coordination Centre (I4C). To raise awareness about cybercrime, the Central Government has implemented several measures, including the dissemination of messages through SMS, social media accounts associated with I4C i.e. X (formerly Twitter) – @Cyberdost; Facebook: CyberDostI4C; Instagram – Cyberdosti4C, and Telegram – Cyberdosti4c; a radio campaign, and collaboration with MyGov for publicity across various platforms. They have also organised Cyber Safety and Security Awareness Weeks in partnership with States/UTs and published a Handbook for Adolescents/Students. States and UTs have been encouraged to conduct public awareness campaigns to foster mass awareness of cyber safety.
Cyber Security: Insulating Yourself from Scams
Cybercrime is progressing at an incredibly fast pace, with new trends constantly emerging. Cybercriminals are becoming more agile, exploiting new technologies with lightning speed, tailoring their attacks using new methods, and cooperating with each other in ways we have not seen before. D. Sivanandhan, Former Director-General of Police (Retd), Maharashtra, who was also the former Commissioner of Mumbai Police, expressed his concerns about the growing number of cyber attacks in the country. In a heart-to-heart chat with Satya Swaroop, Managing Editor, The Mumbai PROTECTOR, he says that the police must keep pace with new technologies and use these tools for fighting cybercrimes. He also highlights the rampant cybercrime attacks and how they can be prevented. Let us read on and be enlightened by the useful guidelines he has in store for us.
Mr. Sivanandhan, given your extensive experience dealing with some of the most dangerous criminals, do you believe the biggest threats today come from those hidden behind computer screens?
Cybercrime has evolved into one of the most significant threats we face today. As Warren Buffet wisely remarked, “I’m not worried about nuclear war; I’m far more concerned about cyber crimes.” The future of crime is becoming increasingly digital, and that should concern all of us. Innocent and gullible people are easy victims to these crimes, and recovering the money or personal information can be a nightmare.
With the rise in fake calls from individuals pretending to be police officers or other officials, how can people distinguish between a real officer and a fraud? Could you share any incidents that illustrate this?
A recent incident reported by the Times of India highlights the dangers of sophisticated scams. Just last month, a female CEO fell victim to an elaborate scheme. She received a video call from someone impersonating a police officer, complete with a uniform and credible threats from a fake CBI setup. The scammers presented official-looking emblems and documents, ultimately defrauding her of Rs 25 Crores—a loss larger than any I’ve encountered in my career. The scammers even used fake letters with multiple department stamps, a forgery that would have taken years to fabricate.
To spot a fake, pay attention to the method of contact. A genuine police officer will never threaten you over a video call. If you receive such a call, it is a deep fake, and you should not trust it. A legitimate officer will contact you through official channels, such as a formal request to visit the police station. Another common scam is the fake FedEx parcel containing narcotics, where they threaten you with the NDPS Act and demand money to avoid imprisonment. My advice is simple: if a ‘police officer’ looks too good to be true, hang up and block the number.
If someone fall victim to such a scam despite being vigilant, how can they recover their money and ensure these fraudsters are brought to justice?
While you may not be able to take direct action, the police can. The key is prevention—pause, think, and act before reacting to any suspicious situation. Do not let fear, greed, or anger dictate your actions. If you do fall victim, report it immediately. Call the cyber cell at 1930 or visit your nearest Cyber Police Station. Every police station in the country now has cyber technology and trained officers. Quick reporting is crucial; the sooner you report, the better the chances of stopping the flow of money and recovering your funds.
So, being vigilant and prompt in reporting is essential?
It is always crucial to be vigilant and report the matter as soon as you realise that fraud has been committed. The window for recovering your money is often within the first three days. For instance, an actor recently lost Rs 4.4 Lakhs. He wasted no time reporting the matter to the police. Thanks to the swift action of the Mumbai Police, 90% of the money was recovered.
Would you like to share some more useful tips for our readers?
I do have a list of advisories to enhance your situational awareness and may save you from becoming the next victim.
• Fake International Parcel Scam: Fraudsters pose as delivery agents, asking for personal info and payment. Verify deliveries via official websites and tracking IDs.
• Drugs-in Parcel Scam/Digital Arrest: Scammers claim a parcel with contraband was intercepted. They pose as officials, threatening with fake charges and demand money. Verify calls, check official papers, and report to authorities.
• False Credit Card Transactions: Automated calls claim unauthorized credit card use, asking for card details. Always contact your bank directly.
• Electricity/Telephone Disconnection Scam: Fake SMS warns of disconnection unless payment is made via provided link. Verify directly with your service provider.
• Business Email Compromise (BEC): Scammers impersonate trusted figures, requesting urgent money transfers. Always confirm requests directly with the person involved.
• Fake Customer Care Numbers: Fraudsters create fake customer service numbers to steal info. Use numbers only from official company websites.
• Phishing: Fraudulent emails steal personal info like card details. Avoid suspicious links.
• Smishing: Fake SMS trick you into sharing sensitive info or installing malware. Stay vigilant.
• Vishing: Fraudulent calls ask for sensitive info. Be cautious and verify the caller’s identity.
• Online Job Fraud: Scammers offer fake jobs with high pay. Verify offers thoroughly before sharing any details.
• Investment Fraud: Scammers lure you into fake investments promising high returns. Conduct due diligence before investing.
• Relationship Scams: Scammers gain trust through fake relationships to steal money or info. Be wary of online-only relationships.
• Refund Fraud: Scammers offer to recover lost money for a fee, but steal more instead. Do not pay upfront fees for refunds.
• LIC/Insurance Scams: Fraudsters pose as officials asking for money for policy refunds. Verify any requests directly with the company.
• Lottery/Advance Fee/Online Loan Scams: Victims are asked to pay upfront for lottery winnings or loan approvals. These payments are never followed by any actual services.
• Emergency Scam: Scammers pretend a loved one is in urgent need of money. Always verify the situation directly.
• Extortion: Scammers threaten with harm or arrest to extract money. Report such threats immediately.
• Sextortion: Predators blackmail victims with intimate images, demanding money or more images. Never share such content online.
• Cyber Bullying: Online harassment through digital devices. Report and block the perpetrator.
• Cyber Stalking: Repeated, unwanted online contact or monitoring. Report and take legal action.
• Sexting: Sending explicit digital content. Be aware of the risks, especially regarding privacy.
• Fake Websites: Fraudsters create fake stores or login pages to steal info. Only shop from trusted, verified sites.
• Spamming: Unsolicited messages try to sell products or steal info. Avoid engaging with spam.
• Fake Uber Fare Scam: Drivers use fake app screens to show inflated fares. Verify the fare directly on your Uber app.
• Fake QR Codes: Scammers create fake QR codes to steal money. Verify the authenticity before making payments.
• Travel Scams: Fake offers for vacations that lead to hidden fees or scams. Research thoroughly before booking.
• Discount Scams: Scammers lure victims with fake discounts, leading to fraudulent transactions. Verify offers before purchasing.
• Cyber Grooming: Predators build online relationships with minors to exploit them. Monitor and educate young users about online safety.
How to Avoid Internet Scams
For those wondering how to avoid being scammed online, here are some sensible tips you can follow to stay safe.
Protect Your Details: Never send money or share personal info with unknown or untrusted sources.
Be Wary of Unsolicited Emails: Avoid clicking on links or opening attachments from suspicious emails or texts. Don’t respond to requests for personal or financial information.
Decline Remote Access Requests: Hang up on calls from strangers asking for remote access to your computer—they might install malware.
Secure Your Devices: Use strong passwords, protect your Wi-Fi with a password, avoid public Wi-Fi for sensitive tasks, and update security regularly.
Create Strong Passwords: Use long, unique passwords with a mix of letters, numbers, and special characters. Change them regularly.
Manage Privacy Settings: Review and adjust privacy settings on social media. Be cautious with connections and report any suspicious activity.
Download Safely: Only download or stream content from trusted websites to avoid malware risks.
Avoid Pressure Tactics: Do not give in to urgent demands for payment or information—these are likely scams.
Trust Your Instincts: If an offer seems too good to be true, it probably is. Be cautious of unrealistic discounts or prizes.
Secure Your Connection: Use a VPN for secure internet browsing and ensure websites show a lock symbol and “https” in the URL for secure transactions.
In the online world, follow the ABC rule –
Assume Nothing, Believe Nobody, Check Everything. Stay alert and be wary of people unexpectedly contacting you by email or phone and asking for your personal information.
Cybercrimes and Human Rights
Praveen Dixit is the Special Rapporteur, Maharashtra and Goa, for the National Human Rights Commission.
India has been championing human rights for centuries and applying the same principles to not only individuals but also the rights of animals, birds, marine creatures, and the natural world, including mountains, trees, rivers, and oceans. This is achieved through the implementation of the Indian Constitution, which outlines enforceable fundamental rights and provides Directive Principles to steer State Policy. This has been further strengthened through the establishment of National and State Human Rights Commissions from 1993 onwards. While these efforts witnessed great success, the last two decades have noticed technological innovations in the field of information, technological revolution and communication. It is believed the number of persons using computers and mobiles in India is nearly one billion and the same is likely to witness further escalation in the coming years with increasing speed. As the number of individuals using cyberspace grows, so does the presence of anti-social elements who exploit legal, economic, and social vulnerabilities, often infringing on the human rights of many. Data from the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) reveals that cybercriminals target people of all ages, including infants, young children, adolescents, young adults, and the elderly, spanning across all socioeconomic backgrounds and education levels. This data suggests that virtually no one is immune to this pervasive threat.
India has been sensitive to these ever-expanding threats from the cyber world and endeavours to undertake all possible measures to combat the same through international, national, legal, and organisational efforts by adopting innovative technologies from time to time. The first step in this direction was the adoption of the Information Technology Act 2000 (IT Act), with Amendments in 2008, and 2015.
To ensure cyber security, there are five main types of laws followed in India. These include the Information Technology Act 2000, (IT Act), Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023, (BNS), the Information Technology Rules (IT Rules), the Companies Act of 2013 and the Cybersecurity Framework (NCFS). These highlight penalties and sanctions enacted by the Parliament of India that safeguard the sectors of e-governance, e-banking, and e-commerce.
In a major step to repeal archaic three criminal laws, the Parliament adopted Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS) and Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam 2023, and the same have been implemented throughout the country from July 1, 2024. These enactments expressly recognise electronic communication as approved in the criminal process and thereby promote transparency. These also ensure the rights of victims. Moreover, the earlier practice of inordinate delays causing enormous harm to the cause of justice has been curbed through timelines for the entire process. Cyber offences through electronic devices have been expressly mentioned along with penalties to protect children, women, and elderly persons in the beginning chapters of BNS. The human rights of individuals during arrest, searches and seizures have been well protected through mandatory video recording of the entire process. To ensure details of persons who are missing or disappearing, the BNSS has made it mandatory for every police station and district police headquarters to display details of arrested persons including the name of the arrested person, charges, time, etc., digitally. It is also mandatory to have forensic experts examine a person when the offence is punishable for more than seven years.
To curb the nefarious practice of determining the sex of the foetus, sonography machines were being used widely. India has promulgated the Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (PCPNDT) Act 1994 along with initiating a movement called Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao throughout the country. This has reduced female infanticides and helped to improve the male-female sex ratio considerably.
Cybercriminals are increasingly exploiting cyberspace to promote terrorism and recruit young people into extremist ideologies. They leverage the dark web, cryptocurrency, and drug trafficking to further their illegal operations. In response, India has taken a firm stance against all forms of terrorism, maintaining a zero-tolerance policy towards drug trafficking and resisting the legalisation of cryptocurrency to curb such activities. Similarly, India implemented the demonetisation of high-value currency notes to combat counterfeit currency and curb the flow of black money, significantly safeguarding the economic rights of its citizens. To reinforce these efforts, India has amended the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act and empowered the National Investigation Agency (NIA) through amendments, allowing them to investigate such offences as federal crimes. In this connection, it is worth recalling the NIA statement on October 10, 2024. It read, “NIA investigations have revealed that five persons were involved in trafficking vulnerable Indian youth to the Golden Triangle Region in Lao PDR where they were forced to commit cyber scams targeting European and American citizens. They operated through the consultancy firm, All International Services, which functioned as a front for human trafficking.” (The Perfect Voice, Oct 11, 2024). Increasingly, cybercriminals from China and Pakistan are indulging in cybercrimes against vulnerable Indians, Americans, Australians and British citizens. This underlines the need to have close cooperation among international law-enforcing agencies through multilateral cooperation.
To raise awareness about cybercriminals and encourage best practices for combating them, the National Human Rights Commission regularly issues advisories on technological advancements related to the rights of children, women, the elderly, prisoners, and other vulnerable groups. Additionally, the Commission investigates individual complaints regarding human rights violations to ensure justice at the local level. In addition, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), along with public and private banks, actively educates customers and the general public on the importance of safeguarding their account details and avoiding fraudulent schemes or reward-based scams. They have widely publicised helplines for early reporting by victims. The Government of India has also set up a dedicated helpline number, 1930, and encourages reporting of cybercrimes through the portal https://www.cybercrime.gov.in, to ensure timely assistance and intervention.
The Department of Telecommuni-cation has a portal called Chakshu to report suspected fraud and unsolicited commercial communication received within the last thirty days – https://services.india.gov.in/service/detail/chakshu-report-suspected-fraud-communication It helps you in several ways, including, Knowing your wireline internet service provider – https://services.india.gov.in/service/service_url_redirect?id=MjQ0MTA=
Reporting incoming international calls with an Indian number- https://services.india.gov.in/service/service_url_redirect?id=MjQ0MDg=
Knowing the number of connections issued in your name – https://services.india.gov.in/service/service_url_redirect?id=MjQwNTA=
Facility to verify mobile device using IMEI number – https://services.india.gov.in/service/service_url_redirect?id=MjQwNDg=
India Cybercrime Coordination Centre
The Indian Cybercrime Coordination Centre (I4C) was established by MHA, in New Delhi to provide a framework and ecosystem for Law Enforcement Agencies (LEAs) for dealing with cybercrime in a coordinated and comprehensive manner.
I4C – https://i4c.mha.gov.in/ – is envisaged to act as the nodal point to curb Cybercrime in the country. It deals with efforts to create awareness through training law enforcing agencies in ‘Cyber Yodha’ (https://www.cyberyodha.org/) and has trained thousands of police officers in cybercrime. It also spreads awareness messages through social media in the form of ‘Cyber Dost’ (https://dot.gov.in/banner/cyber-dost).
According to the website – https://i4c.mha.gov.in/ – safe practices to prevent cybercrime include avoiding pop-ups, unknown mails and links, usage of strong password and authentication, installation of updates and backups for your data.
The portal mentions cybercrime categories such as:
1. Cryptocurrency Crime
2. Cyber Terrorism
3. Hacking/damage of computer systems
4. Online and social media-related crimes such as:
(a) Cheating by Impersonation
(b) Cyber Bullying/Stalking/Sexting
(c) E-Mail Phishing Fake/Impersonating Profile
(d) Impersonating Email
(e) Intimidating Email
(f) Online Job Fraud
(g) Online Matrimonial Fraud
(h) Profile Hacking/Identity Theft
(i) Provocative Speech for Unlawful Acts
To strengthen efforts in fighting cybercrime, the Government of Maharashtra has recently established Cybercrime Investigation Capacity Centre. It claims to possess the best global technologies including Technology Assisted Intelligence (TAI) and machine learning tools to aid investigations into crimes like cryptocurrency fraud and combat cybercrime effectively. It houses the Security Operation Centre (SOC) for the security of the Cyber Security Project. This is designed to manage large-scale security breaches and respond to threats targeting individuals and businesses. It has launched a new dedicated helpline – 14407 – in a 24×7 Command Centre. It has a Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT) to coordinate swift responses to cyber incidents.
I would like to conclude by observing that the right to disconnect one’s posts from social media and the right to privacy of personal data are areas which need to be looked into by India urgently. These areas are being misused by cybercriminals extensively. While these efforts by India are laudable, I would urge everyone using cyberspace via computer, mobile or any other electronic device, to completely refrain from responding to any audio or video calls or emails from unknown numbers or email IDs from India or abroad. In case one wants to respond, it is advisable to verify the details of the person calling or emailing. Constant awareness alone can protect your human rights pertaining to life, money, dignity and reputation from the ever-increasing cybercriminals.
Predictive Policing: Leveraging AI and Machine Learning for Crime Prevention
B Shanker Jaiswal, IPS, is the Joint CP Technology & Project Implementation in Delhi Police. His MS Research (MSR) thesis focused on predictive policing, culminating in the publication of two significant papers on crime prediction using AI methodologies. He is a proponent of leveraging cutting-edge technologies to enhance public safety.
He can be reached at shankerips@gmail.com.
Predictive policing is transforming law enforcement by harnessing artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) to anticipate criminal activities. This approach allows for more efficient resource allocation and crime prevention. This article delves into the mechanics, applications, and impact of predictive policing on public safety, while also addressing the accompanying ethical and cybersecurity challenges. With real-world examples from global and Indian contexts, it highlights how predictive policing could revolutionise crime-fighting, despite hurdles like bias and data security concerns.
Understanding Predictive Policing
Predictive policing is rooted in applying data analytics to forecast crime hotspots or predict when and where crimes are likely to occur. This modern law enforcement tool analyses historical crime data to identify patterns, trends, and anomalies, which help police deploy resources more effectively. The focus is not on predicting specific criminal actions, but on determining the likelihood of crime in particular areas or by certain individuals.
Predictive policing operates similarly to weather forecasting: it provides probability-based estimates that guide decision-making. The key difference from traditional law enforcement is that predictive policing shifts from reactive to proactive. By anticipating crime, law enforcement agencies can deter criminal activities before they happen.
The predictive models utilize crime data, neighborhood characteristics, socio-economic factors, and real-time data like traffic patterns or social media activity. This dynamic approach makes predictive policing a forward-looking tool especially useful in urban areas with high crime rates and resource constraints.
The Role of AI and Machine Learning
The evolution of predictive policing has been fuelled by advances in AI and ML. AI technologies, such as deep learning and neural networks, can process large datasets at incredible speeds, uncovering patterns often invisible to human analysts. In India and globally, this technological capability allows police forces to make sense of the overwhelming volume of data produced by modern cities.
Machine learning models are well-suited for predictive policing because they learn from data over time, which enhances their accuracy. For instance, when a model is trained on years of crime data, it can identify trends that repeat seasonally or correlate with specific events, such as festivals or political rallies. These AI models also incorporate real-time data feeds to improve predictions dynamically
In India, where the police face chronic manpower shortages, AI can enhance productivity by directing officers to areas where their presence is most needed. This technology is not just theoretical; cities like Delhi and Mumbai are already piloting AI-based predictive policing systems to manage crime more efficiently in densely populated urban areas.
Importance of Data and Technology
We are witnessing a pivotal moment in the intersection of data and technology. The availability of large datasets, enhanced computational power, and sophisticated algorithms have created unprecedented opportunities for police departments to make informed predictions about crime. This convergence enables law enforcement agencies to strategise and deploy personnel more efficiently, significantly improving their ability to prevent crime.
The potential of predictive policing is built on three pillars: data, computing power, and algorithms. Historical crime data provides a foundation for creating predictive models, while advanced AI techniques—such as deep learning and convolutional neural networks (CNNs)—enhance the precision of predictions. This synergy between data and technology makes it possible for police departments to make informed decisions about where and when crimes are likely to occur, improving public safety.
Data is the backbone of predictive policing. The reliability and accuracy of crime forecasts depend largely on the quality of data input. Traditionally, this data includes crime reports, arrests, and complaints, but modern predictive policing systems integrate additional layers like geographic data, CCTV footage, and even social media analysis.
In India, the police forces’ reliance on manual data collection has been a limiting factor. However, the advent of digital tools and initiatives like the Crime and Criminal Tracking Network & Systems (CCTNS) has streamlined data collection and sharing across various jurisdictions. This data centralisation is a significant step towards more robust and reliable predictive models.
Globally, advanced policing systems use big data analytics AI-powered algorithms to generate crime predictions. For instance, the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) employs PredPol, an AI system that analyses historical crime data and identifies high-risk areas. The software focuses on small geographical zones, guiding police patrols based on daily predictions.
Similarly, predictive policing models in countries like the UK have been employed to track potential terror threats and gang activities. AI integration with law enforcement practices ensures that data is analysed not just for trends but also for deep insights into criminal behaviour.
Applications of Predictive Policing
The applications of predictive analytics in policing extend beyond identifying potential crime hotspots. These tools are useful in numerous areas:
1. Crime Prevention: Police can focus their efforts on areas with the highest probability of criminal activity. By concentrating patrols and resources, agencies can prevent crimes before they occur.
2. Operational Planning: Predictive models assist in planning large-scale operations like raids or controlling public events. For example, during political rallies or religious festivals in India, police can use predictive models to pre-emptively allocate resources to areas where unrest or criminal activity is expected.
3. Counter-Terrorism: Predictive policing has proven invaluable in combating terrorism using behavioural and geographic patterns to identify potential threats. In India, where terrorism remains a significant concern, the ability to predict extremist activities based on historical data can help law enforcement prevent attacks.
4. Traffic Management and Crime Detection: Some cities have integrated traffic and crime data to predict where accidents or crimes like robbery may coincide. In India’s metropolitan cities, integrating predictive models into Intelligent Traffic Management Systems (ITMS) is proving to be a vital step toward reducing both crime and traffic fatalities.
Predictive policing also holds promise for combating terrorism and gang-related offences. By analysing patterns in historical data and identifying at-risk individuals or groups, predictive models can guide interventions that prevent these crimes from escalating. This proactive approach has demonstrated its potential to reduce crime rates significantly across various urban centres.
Mechanics of Predictive Models
The predictive policing models follow a well-structured process involving several stages. First, crime data from multiple sources is gathered, cleansed, and analysed. This data typically includes the location of crimes, times, types of offences, and socio-economic factors that influence crime rates.
Predictive policing relies heavily on algorithms that analyse historical crime data to identify trends and predict future incidents. These models are trained using crime data spanning several years—typically three to five years—to detect recurring patterns. For instance, in a large city like Delhi, predictions can be made for every day of the year, enhancing the precision and effectiveness of policing efforts.
The process begins with feeding the model historical data, such as crime location, time of occurrence, and socioeconomic conditions. Once trained, the model can forecast high-risk areas and suggest locations for increased patrols and law enforcement presence. These models are continually tested and refined, ensuring they remain accurate and relevant in dynamic urban environments. When law enforcement applies the insights generated by these models, they can prevent crimes before they happen and reduce crime rates significantly.
In practice, law enforcement agencies utilise block diagrams to train their models, test them, and ultimately make predictions. A critical outcome of this process is the identification of crime hotspots—specific areas where certain types of crime are most likely to occur. For example, in a city like Delhi, the model may generate predictions for 1,000 potential crime locations daily which are distributed across police precincts for targeted patrolling. By focusing on these predicted hotspots, police officers can utilise limited resources.
In Delhi, for instance, law enforcement agencies have historical data from thousands of reported incidents. Predictive models process this data using AI algorithms to identify crime hotspots and forecast patterns. Police officers receive daily forecasts with maps marking potential crime zones, helping them optimise their patrolling strategies.
The success of these models depends on constant refinement. As more data is input, the system ‘learns’ and adjusts its predictions accordingly. This iterative process ensures that the models stay relevant and accurate even in the face of changing crime dynamics, population shifts, and urban expansion.
Global and Indian Context: Real-World Impact
Globally, predictive policing has shown positive outcomes. The previously mentioned trial in Los Angeles, where AI-driven patrol deployments reduced burglary rates by 17%, is a significant case study of its potential impact. Similar successes have been recorded in the UK and several European countries where predictive policing models are integrated into regular law enforcement practices.
In India, where police resources are stretched thin, predictive policing has great potential to increase efficiency. While still in its nascent stages, several Indian States are exploring pilot programmes to implement predictive analytics in routine policing. The Delhi Police’s initiative to utilise data analytics and AI for crime prevention highlights the growing trend of digital transformation aimed at enhancing public safety. Implementing these technologies, particularly in fast-growing cities like Bengaluru and Hyderabad, can effectively address challenges related to urbanisation and crime.
Addressing Cybersecurity Concerns
Despite its many advantages, predictive policing faces ethical and cybersecurity challenges that cannot be overlooked. One major concern is the vulnerability of predictive models to manipulation by malicious actors. Criminals could exploit these systems by feeding false data into the models or evading detection through sophisticated countermeasures.
Cybersecurity is paramount in maintaining the integrity of predictive policing systems. In India, the integration of AI in law enforcement makes these systems a target for cybercriminals. Police departments must implement robust encryption methods, secure data storage, and real-time monitoring to prevent breaches that could undermine public trust.
Ethical Considerations
While the benefits of predictive policing are clear, ethical concerns must be addressed. Using AI in law enforcement raises questions about privacy, bias, and accountability. For example, some predictive models have been criticised for reinforcing racial or socio-economic biases present in historical crime data. These biases can lead to over-policing in certain communities, undermining trust between law enforcement and the public.
Ethically, predictive policing raises concerns about bias. Historical crime data often reflects existing socio-economic disparities, leading to the over-policing of marginalised communities. For instance, some models in the U.S. have been criticised for racial bias, as they disproportionately target minority groups based on historical arrest records. In the Indian context, such bias could manifest in geographic or caste-based targeting, necessitating a careful review of algorithms to ensure fairness and transparency.
Robust cybersecurity measures are critical to safeguard predictive policing models. Ensuring data integrity, securing algorithms from tampering, and protecting individuals’ privacy are all essential for maintaining public trust in predictive policing technologies. Any breach of these systems could erode confidence and compromise their effectiveness, making cybersecurity a priority for all police departments implementing predictive models.
To ensure that predictive policing is implemented ethically, law enforcement agencies must prioritise transparency and fairness in their algorithms. Policymakers, data scientists, and law enforcement professionals must work together to develop frameworks that mitigate bias, protect individual privacy, and hold law enforcement accountable for how predictive models are used.
Interdisciplinary Nature of Predictive Policing
Predictive policing is inherently interdisciplinary, blending elements from criminology, AI, statistics, and sociology. By combining these fields, predictive models gain a holistic view of crime dynamics. Criminology, for instance, provides insights into why certain crimes occur in specific locations, while AI aids in identifying patterns invisible to human analysts.
Traditionally, criminology has focused on understanding criminal behaviour through biological, sociological, and psychological factors. However, recent studies have increasingly recognised the role of environmental factors—such as neighbourhood layout, population density, and economic conditions—in influencing crime rates.
In India, the traditional focus on crime prevention has relied heavily on sociology and psychology, but the integration of AI allows for a more data-driven approach. The interdisciplinary nature of this technology helps law enforcement understand crime from multiple angles, enhancing its ability to address complex challenges such as terrorism, organised crime, and cybercrime.
By integrating insights from criminology and data science, predictive models become more refined and accurate. This multidisciplinary approach enhances the ability of law enforcement agencies to predict criminal activity and take pre-emptive actions. Data mining, machine learning, and deep learning techniques play a crucial role in developing these models, ensuring that predictions are based on comprehensive and multi-dimensional analyses.
The Future of Predictive Policing
Looking forward, the role of AI in law enforcement is only expected to grow. Future predictive policing models will likely incorporate more real-time data sources, including social media monitoring, satellite imagery, and internet-of-things (IoT) devices like smart city sensors.
In India, as smart city projects proliferate, the integration of predictive policing within smart infrastructure will be critical. AI-driven surveillance, combined with IoT and traffic data, could help police respond more quickly to crimes and emergencies, making cities safer. This convergence of technology presents an opportunity for India to leapfrog into the next generation of law enforcement strategies.
However, with this future comes a need for greater oversight. Ensuring that predictive policing is used responsibly and ethically, particularly in diverse societies like India, requires legal frameworks that address privacy concerns and prevent misuse. Collaboration between technologists, law enforcement, and civil society will be key to navigating these challenges.
As technology continues to evolve, so too does the potential of predictive policing. AI and ML are poised to revolutionise law enforcement, shifting the focus from reacting to crimes after they occur to proactively preventing them. By combining predictive analytics with real-time data feeds, such as social media analysis and video surveillance, police agencies can respond more quickly and accurately to emerging threats.
Moreover, ongoing research into AI and ML will further improve the accuracy and reliability of predictive models. As new algorithms are developed, predictive policing will become more effective at preventing not only street crime but also complex criminal activities like terrorism and organized crime.
Conclusion
Predictive policing offers a powerful, data-driven approach to crime prevention, leveraging AI and ML to anticipate criminal behaviour. Its application in both global and Indian contexts highlights the potential for reducing crime rates and improving public safety. However, its success will depend on careful management of ethical concerns, cybersecurity risks, and the equitable application of algorithms.
In conclusion, predictive policing represents a significant advancement in crime prevention strategies, harnessing the power of AI and machine learning to forecast crime and allocate resources more effectively. By leveraging data-driven insights, law enforcement agencies can adopt a proactive approach to public safety, reducing crime rates and improving community well-being. As predictive policing continues to evolve, its integration into law enforcement practices promises a transformative impact. However, this evolution must be accompanied by a commitment to ethical standards and cybersecurity protections. As technology advances, the collaboration between data scientists, law enforcement professionals, and policymakers will be vital in addressing the challenges and opportunities that predictive policing presents. Predictive policing is not just a technological innovation; it is a societal shift that requires a balance between progress and responsibility.
New Criminal Laws in India
Advocate Salman Sabuani is a specialist in matters concerning legal strategy, fraud by companies, white collar crime, forensic accounting, corporate and individual debt recovery, medical negligence cases, and property encroachment matters.
I am writing this series of articles to help readers gain a better understanding of their interactions with law enforcement agencies. By clarifying key legal concepts and explaining recent changes, I aim to provide valuable insights that will benefit not only the average citizen but also serve as a helpful resource for law enforcement officers. These articles will bridge the knowledge gap, empowering individuals to understand their rights and responsibilities, while also assisting police personnel in grasping the practical implications of the new legal framework in their daily duties.
Whether you are a citizen trying to navigate the legal system or an officer enforcing the law, clear comprehension of substantive and procedural laws is crucial for ensuring justice and fairness for all. This series will discuss not only the substantive aspects of law but also emphasise procedural rights, which are essential for navigating the criminal justice system.
To begin, it is essential to understand the distinction between substantive and procedural laws. Substantive laws define the rights, liabilities, and obligations of individuals while procedural laws outline the steps necessary to enforce those rights and obligations. In other words, substantive laws answer the “what” of the law, and procedural laws explain the “how.”
For over a century, India’s criminal justice system has been guided by three foundational laws:
1. The Indian Penal Code (IPC), 1860 – This law defines what constitutes criminal offences in India and specifies the punishments for those offences.
2. The Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC), 1973 – This law governs the procedures for investigation, prosecution, and trial of offences.
3. The Indian Evidence Act, 1872 – This law establishes the rules of evidence, determining what can be admitted or relied upon in a court of law.
The Shift to New Laws: Reasons and Methods
Recently, long-standing laws have been replaced with updated versions in the form of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), 2023, the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS), 2023, and the Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam (BSA), 2023. The primary reasons for this overhaul include:
1. Colonial Legacy of Old Laws – The Indian Penal Code (IPC), Criminal Procedure Code (CrPC), and Evidence Act were products of the British colonial administration, created primarily to maintain law and order in a colony. These laws were designed with a colonial mindset, focusing on control rather than justice for citizens. As India has evolved into a democratic republic, it has become essential to update these laws to reflect the values of independence, fairness, and efficiency often lacking in the older framework.
2. Evolving Nature of Crime – Crimes today are far more complex and varied than when the original laws were drafted. Matters like cybercrime, economic offences, transnational crimes, organised syndicates, and terrorism have emerged as significant challenges that the old laws were not adequately equipped to handle. The need to address these modern challenges through a more dynamic and responsive legal framework has prompted the introduction of the BNS, BNSS, and BSA.
3. Inefficiency and Delay – Over time, the old legal framework was criticised for inefficiency and causing significant delays in the criminal justice process. With some cases taking years, and even decades, to resolve, there was an urgent need to streamline procedures and improve the speed of trials to ensure that justice was delivered more promptly.
4. Balancing Rights and Punishment – Another key factor was the need to align punishments and legal procedures with modern values, ensuring a balance between the rights of the accused and the rights of victims. The new laws aim to maintain procedural safeguards while preventing justice from being delayed or denied due to overly complicated or outdated legal formalities.
Key Replacements
1. Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), 2023 – This law replaces the Indian Penal Code (IPC) and addresses criminal offences. It focuses on simplifying legal language and aligning punishments with modern values and societal expectations. The BNS aims to ensure faster trials and judgments by establishing clear provisions to prevent procedural delays.
2. Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS), 2023 – The BNSS replaces the Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC) and emphasises procedural reforms to enhance the efficiency of the criminal justice system. It introduces mechanisms for faster investigations and trial processes, while also addressing new categories of offenses, including cybercrimes and transnational offences.
3. Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam (BSA), 2023 – This law replaces the Indian Evidence Act and updates the rules of evidence to reflect modern realities, particularly concerning digital evidence and globalised crime. The BSA introduces clear guidelines for admissibility, ensuring that the justice system is more transparent and responsive to contemporary challenges.
Why the Change?
The primary objectives of the new laws are:
(a) To modernise the legal framework to align with the complexities of today’s world.
(b) To move away from the colonial legacy and establish laws reflecting the values of an independent and democratic India.
(c) To enhance efficiency by reducing delays in the judicial process, ensuring quicker access to justice.
(d) To address new crimes, such as cybercrime, organised crime, and terrorism, which were not adequately covered by the previous legal framework.
(e) To align punishments and procedures with contemporary societal values, striking a balance between fairness and deterrence in criminal behaviour.
Interplay Between Special Laws and New Reforms
The BNS, BNSS, and BSA represent a significant overhaul of India’s foundational criminal laws. However, the country’s legal landscape also includes several special laws designed to address specific types of crime, such as terrorism and organised crime. These laws provide tailored frameworks to handle complex offences that require exceptional measures. Some of the key special laws include:
1. Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA), 1967 – The UAPA focuses on preventing and addressing terrorism and unlawful activities that threaten India’s sovereignty and security.
2. Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act (MCOCA), 1999 – This law aims to combat organised crime syndicates and grants law enforcement special powers to address cases involving criminal networks.
3. Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA), 2002 – This law aims to prevent money laundering by ensuring that the proceeds from criminal activities are tracked and confiscated.
4. Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act (NDPS), 1985 – The NDPS Act addresses drug-related offences, including the production, sale, and trafficking of narcotic and psychotropic substances.
5. National Security Act (NSA), 1980 – This Act allows for the preventive detention of individuals whose actions pose a threat to national security or public order.
6. Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act (AFSPA), 1958 – AFSPA grants special powers to the armed forces in “disturbed areas,” enabling them to maintain law and order in regions prone to insurgency.
Law Enforcement Agencies
The enforcement of laws and the overall criminal justice system are supported by various agencies that play crucial roles in law enforcement. Some of the major agencies include:
1. State Police Forces – They are responsible for maintaining law and order at the State level, investigating crimes, and ensuring public safety.
2. Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) – A premier investigative agency that handles high-profile criminal cases, corruption, and complex economic crimes.
3. Enforcement Directorate (ED) – It focuses on enforcing economic laws and combating financial crimes, particularly money laundering under the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA).
4. National Investigation Agency (NIA) – This agency is responsible for dealing with terrorism and other national security threats.
5. Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI) – The DRI investigates and combats economic offences, smuggling, and customs-related crimes.
6. Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB) – The NCB focuses on enforcing the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act (NDPS) and tackling drug-related crimes.
7. Serious Fraud Investigation Office (SFIO) – The SFIO investigates corporate fraud and financial irregularities.
8. Income Tax Department – This department monitors tax evasion and financial crimes.
9. Financial Intelligence Unit (FIU-IND) – The FIU-IND is responsible for collecting and analysing financial intelligence related to money laundering and terrorist financing.
All these agencies play a vital role in enforcing general and specialised laws, ensuring a robust legal framework that responds effectively to various forms of criminal activity.
In upcoming articles, I will explore the interplay between these specialised laws and the broader legal system, examining how they work together or in opposition. This will provide law enforcement agencies with the necessary legal tools to address complex offences such as terrorism, organised crime, and money laundering. Stay tuned for more insights on how these changes will shape interactions between citizens and law enforcement in the coming years.
PM Modi Cautions Against Digital Arrest Scams
In his latest Mann Ki Baat address, Prime Minister Narendra Modi cautioned the nation about the alarming rise of the ‘digital arrest’ scam. This scam involves fraudsters posing as law enforcement officials to extort money from unsuspecting victims. PM Modi revealed that in the first quarter of 2024 alone, Indians lost a staggering Rs 120.3 Crore to these scams. During his address, he detailed the modus operandi of these fraudsters who often impersonate officials from the police, CBI, narcotics departments, or even the Reserve Bank of India. They create an atmosphere of fear by presenting themselves in agency uniforms and quoting legal provisions, ultimately threatening to arrest the victims unless they pay a specific sum of money.
The digital arrest scam is a rising threat in India, with scammers using fear tactics to exploit victims. According to the NCR Police, 600 cases of digital arrest were reported within three months.
A large number of complaints are reported on the National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal (NCRP) regarding intimidation, blackmail, extortion, and digital arrests by cybercriminals posing as police authorities or officials from the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), Narcotics Department, Reserve Bank of India (RBI), Enforcement Directorate, and other law enforcement agencies.
These fraudsters typically call a potential victim and inform them that the victim has sent or is the intended recipient of a parcel, which contains illegal goods, drugs, fake passports, or any other contraband item. Sometimes, they also inform the victim that a near or dear one is involved in a crime or an accident and is in their custody. A demand for money is made to compromise the ‘case’. In certain instances, unsuspecting victims are made to undergo ‘digital arrest’ and remain visually available over Skype or other video conferencing platforms to the fraudsters till their demands are met. The fraudsters are known to use studios modelled on police stations and government offices and wear uniforms to appear genuine.
Across the country, several victims have lost large amounts of money to such criminals. This is an organised online economic crime and is learnt to be operated by cross-border crime syndicates.
In short, fraudsters pretending to be police and customs officials call people, claiming they are under digital arrest for an illegal act. The callers mostly pretend to be either police personnel or officials from the customs department. After switching to video, victims are shown a police station-like setup to make them believe the call is from law enforcement. The target is accused of illegal activity, and scammers present fake documents showing the digital arrest. Thousands of people have fallen victim to such scams, though digital arrest has no basis in law.
Reports of these scams are increasing across India:
• An elderly man in Ahmedabad was tricked into transferring Rs 1.26 Crore in a digital arrest scam, with scammers impersonating high-ranking officials, including the Chief Justice of India.
• In August 2024, Bengaluru Police arrested several men after a victim was allegedly scammed out of more than Rs 2 Crore. Fraudsters said a parcel addressed to the victim contained the drug MDMA and had been seized by police. Over a WhatsApp call, they threatened him with legal action if he did not pay to settle his alleged legal issues.
• Actor Maala Parvathi, mainly in Malayalam-language movies, reported being targeted by such a scam. Media reports stated that scammers showed her fake ID cards, pretending to be officers from Mumbai Police, and accused her of smuggling drugs to Taiwan. She realised it was a fraud before any exchange of money took place.
• A senior official in the National Buildings Construction Corporation (NBCC) was duped of Rs 55 Lakh in another digital arrest case. The accused video-called the victim on WhatsApp, claiming she was under digital arrest until the CBI could arrive. On September 9, the 35-year-old woman received a call claiming to be from a customs official at Mumbai International Airport. They stated that customs had intercepted a parcel on September 6 containing 16 fake passports, 58 ATM cards, and 40 grams of MDMA, with her details listed as the sender. The caller claimed that Mumbai Police had issued an arrest warrant against her and that she must surrender. He then suggested she transfer Rs 55 Lakh to verify her account to avoid money laundering charges, after which the scammers vanished.
It is not only vulnerable groups who fall prey to these scams. Even wealthy individuals have been targeted. Textile industry doyen
S P Oswal was reportedly tricked into transferring Rs 7 Crore. Oswal, the Chairman-cum-Managing Director of Vardhman Group, the largest textile manufacturing group in the country, was held under digital surveillance for two days over Skype by fraudsters posing as CBI officers. The scammers staged a fake Supreme Court hearing on Skype, with one impersonating Chief Justice of India D Y Chandrachud and issuing a fraudulent order.
A large number of complaints have been made on the National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal (NCRP) about intimidation, blackmail, extortion, and digital arrests by cybercriminals posing as police officers, the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), Narcotics Department, Reserve Bank of India (RBI), and Enforcement Directorate (ED), among others. Victims across the country have reported losing significant amounts to these criminals.
In his warning, Modi advised victims to follow three steps to stay safe:
1. “Stay calm and do not panic. Record or take a screen recording if possible.”
2. “Remember that no government agency will threaten you online.”
3. “Take action by calling the national cyber helpline and informing the police.”
In reality, digital arrest is not legally recognised, and people need not panic. “There is nothing like digital arrest in our law. This is just fraud, deceit, and lies by a gang of criminals who are enemies of society,” said Prime Minister Modi. The scale of the scam is evident from NCRP data: Indians have lost up to Rs 120 Crore in digital arrest cases in the first quarter of 2024. PM Modi addressed this topic to raise awareness and encourage caution.
How to Protect Yourself
• Verify information: Never share personal or financial details over the phone or online unless you are certain of the requester’s identity.
• Be wary of unfamiliar numbers: Avoid answering calls from unknown numbers, especially those with foreign area codes.
• Cross-check information: Verify suspicious calls or messages with a trusted source, such as a government website or law enforcement agency.
• Stay calm: Scammers rely on fear and intimidation to manipulate victims. Stay calm and avoid impulsive decisions.
• Report the scam: If targeted by a digital arrest scam, report it to local police or cybercrime authorities.
Actions by the Centre
Indian intelligence agencies have identified the scams as part of a coordinated online economic crime network operated by cross-border syndicates. In response, the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C), under the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), has blocked more than 1,000 Skype IDs associated with these activities, with technical support from Microsoft.
The I4C is also working to block SIM cards, mobile devices, and mule accounts used by cybercriminals. In a security advisory, HDFC Bank warned about “money mules” — unsuspecting individuals tricked into laundering stolen or illicit money through their bank accounts, often becoming the target of police investigations once the crime is reported.
The MHA, alongside other government ministries, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), and various organizations, is actively combating these cybercrimes. The I4C provides support to State and union territory police forces by supplying intelligence and technical assistance to help identify and investigate cybercrime cases.
Additionally, the I4C raises public awareness through its social media platform, Cyberdost, sharing infographics and videos on X (formerly Twitter), Facebook, Instagram, and other platforms. Citizens are encouraged to remain vigilant, report any suspicious calls, and share information on cybercrime prevention.
To report scams, individuals can contact the national cybercrime helpline at 1930 or visit
www.cybercrime.gov.in.
Cybersecurity in the Age of AI, 5G, and Quantum Computing: Global and Indian Perspectives
Padma Jaiswal, a 2003-batch IAS officer from the AGMUT cadre, holds an MBA from Panjab University and a degree in Company Secretaryship. She has held significant roles in the Union and State governments, public-sector companies, and regulatory institutions like RBI, SEBI, and the Election Commission. Currently serving as Secretary to the Government for Union Territories and States, her responsibilities include policy formulation, implementation, and key decision-making within her jurisdiction in coordination with relevant ministers or the Council of Ministers.
As the world increasingly adopts AI, 5G, and Quantum Computing, these technologies provide new opportunities across various industries while exposing nations to more sophisticated cyber threats. Sectors such as finance, healthcare, critical infrastructure, and smart cities face unique risks associated with these advancements. Different countries, including India, are addressing these challenges in various ways. To effectively mitigate these risks, a combination of regulatory frameworks, public-private collaboration, and innovative cybersecurity solutions is essential. In the following sections, we will explore the implications of these technologies with use cases from India and around the world, highlighting both shared challenges and distinct responses.
AI: Enhancing Defences and Enabling Attacks
AI has a dual nature: it can strengthen cybersecurity while empowering cybercriminals. Governments and businesses globally are using AI-based tools to detect threats and predict cyber incidents. For instance, CERT-In in India utilises AI to monitor government networks, and AI-driven fraud detection tools help protect banking operations from phishing and identity theft.
On the other hand, cybercriminals also exploit AI to carry out targeted phishing attacks and create deepfake frauds. In India, hackers used AI to replicate bank communications, tricking customers into disclosing their account credentials. Similarly, in the UK, cybercriminals employed deepfake audio technology to impersonate a CEO, resulting in a fraudulent transfer of over $243,000. These incidents highlight that while AI strengthens cyber defences, attackers use it to devise more complex and personalised threats, making cybersecurity a continuous challenge.
Globally, the response includes AI regulation and collaborative defence frameworks. India’s push for robust AI governance aligns with efforts in Europe where the EU’s AI Act seeks to ensure the ethical and secure use of AI in high-risk applications.
5G Networks: Expanding Connectivity and Increasing Vulnerabilities
The rollout of 5G networks introduces new risks due to the rapid increase in Internet of Things (IoT) devices connected to critical infrastructure. In India, cities like Pune and Bengaluru utilise 5G-powered IoT systems to manage traffic, utilities, and healthcare services. However, if IoT devices are compromised, it could disrupt essential services. For example, in Delhi, an IoT-enabled ventilator in a hospital was targeted by attackers, putting patients at serious risk.
Similar vulnerabilities have arisen globally. In Finland, a distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack on IoT-connected security cameras compromised the surveillance system of a major hotel, demonstrating how cyber-attacks on smart systems can affect safety and operations. In the United States, telecom operators continue to experience persistent DDoS attacks on their 5G infrastructure, causing disruptions across multiple States.
To mitigate these risks, India must implement IoT security standards and adopt zero-trust frameworks. Other countries are taking similar measures: Japan has put strict IoT security policies in place ahead of the 2020 Olympics, while South Korea has mandated zero-trust protocols for its 5G networks to prevent unauthorised access and insider threats.
Quantum Computing: Threats to Encryption and Development of New Defenses
Quantum computing poses a significant threat to traditional encryption methods, raising concerns about the security of financial data, defence communications, and personal information. India’s financial systems, which rely on encryption to secure Aadhaar-linked accounts, are particularly vulnerable to attacks enabled by quantum computing. Hackers could steal encrypted data today and decrypt it in the future, jeopardising national security and financial stability.
Similar challenges are being addressed globally. In the United States, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is leading efforts to develop post-quantum cryptography standards to protect critical infrastructure from future threats. Meanwhile, China is making substantial investments in quantum technologies, heightening concerns about an encryption arms race among global powers.
India has already begun preparing for a quantum future. In 2022, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) successfully conducted a Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) test between two cities, demonstrating progress toward creating secure, unhackable communication channels. Additionally, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has initiated research into quantum-safe cryptography for banking systems to safeguard transactions against future quantum threats.
Cascading Failures and Global Risks
The convergence of AI, 5G, and the Internet of Things (IoT) poses systemic risks, where failures in one system can lead to disruptions across interconnected sectors. This phenomenon is already being observed both in India and internationally. For instance, in Mumbai, a suspected cyber attack in 2021 disrupted the power grid, leaving parts of the city without electricity. Similar incidents have occurred in Ukraine, where cyber attacks on the power grid resulted in nationwide blackouts, underscoring the risks associated with attacks on critical infrastructure.
The combination of AI-powered malware and 5G networks introduces further dangers. In South Korea, hackers utilised AI-driven malware to compromise an autonomous vehicle system, which could have led to serious accidents if not detected in time. The potential for cascading failures highlights the urgent need for nations to implement real-time monitoring tools and promote public-private collaborations to secure critical infrastructure.
India’s National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC) is collaborating with private companies to safeguard telecom, energy, and transport networks against such cascading failures. Similarly, global efforts are underway, with the United States and the European Union launching cross-border collaborations to protect supply chains and critical infrastructure from AI-enhanced attacks.
Mitigating Cyber Risks: Strategies for a Secure Digital Future
As cyber threats are evolving, nations must adopt proactive strategies to secure their digital infrastructure. India has made significant progress with AI-powered incident response tools, such as those used by the Maharashtra Cyber Cell, which successfully averted a large-scale ransomware attack on Mumbai’s municipal corporation in 2023.
Globally, countries are enhancing their cyber resilience through collaborative frameworks. For instance, Israel’s Cyber Defence Authority has formed public-private partnerships to combat ransomware attacks while Singapore has launched cyber hygiene campaigns to raise public awareness about phishing and social engineering threats.
Additionally, the Reserve Bank of India is focusing on adopting post-quantum cryptography to safeguard financial transactions against future quantum threats. This mirrors the efforts of organisations like NIST and Germany, which are developing new encryption standards. Furthermore, zero-trust security models are gaining traction worldwide. The U.S. federal government has mandated the implementation of zero-trust architectures across all agencies by 2024, establishing a global benchmark that India’s 5G telecom operators are beginning to follow.
Securing the Future Through Global
Collaboration and Innovation
The rapid adoption of AI, 5G, and Quantum Computing presents transformative potential but also introduces unprecedented cybersecurity risks. India’s experiences with AI-driven fraud, IoT vulnerabilities, and power grid attacks exemplify broader global challenges. As these technologies converge, countries must implement AI-based threat detection, quantum-safe encryption, and zero-trust frameworks to enhance cyber resilience.
India’s efforts to secure its critical infrastructure align with global initiatives. Collaborative frameworks, such as those between the National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC) and private sector companies in India, reflect similar efforts in countries like the US, Japan, and South Korea, where public-private partnerships are vital for managing cyber risks. As cyber threats become increasingly sophisticated, global cooperation, regulation, and innovation will be essential for ensuring a secure digital future.
By proactively addressing evolving threats and embracing post-quantum cryptography, AI-driven security solutions, and robust 5G frameworks, India and other nations can safeguard their digital ecosystems. In an interconnected world, the ability to adapt proactively will determine the security and sustainability of the digital economy for years to come.
Recommendations for India
As India accelerates its digital transformation with AI, 5G, and quantum technologies, it must implement robust cybersecurity measures to mitigate evolving risks. AI-powered platforms can provide real-time threat detection and prevention; however, attackers leverage AI to launch increasingly sophisticated cyber threats. To stay ahead, India needs to develop AI-based cyber intelligence platforms across critical sectors such as government, healthcare, and banking. Maharashtra’s success in employing AI to prevent ransomware attacks in Mumbai’s municipal network demonstrates the potential for scaling such initiatives nationwide. Furthermore, India can collaborate internationally with the EU, which promotes similar AI-based cyber defence through its Horizon 2020 programme.
The rapid deployment of 5G and IoT networks in India is transforming sectors such as healthcare and smart cities, but it also expands the attack surface. Implementing strong IoT security protocols, secure-by-design frameworks, and zero-trust models will be essential for safeguarding these interconnected networks. India has experienced incidents involving attacks on IoT medical devices, such as the ventilator incident at a Delhi hospital, highlighting the urgent need for stronger controls. Globally, Japan’s IoT security guidelines, effectively applied during the Tokyo Olympics, provide a valuable model that India can adopt to mitigate risks.
Quantum computing poses another significant challenge, as it has the potential to compromise existing encryption methods, putting sensitive data at risk. India must accelerate efforts to adopt post-quantum cryptography and develop quantum-safe communication systems, particularly in the defence and financial sectors. India’s recent success in Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) experiments conducted by ISRO offers a promising foundation for secure communication. By learning from global initiatives such as NIST’s development of post-quantum encryption standards, India can align its research and regulatory efforts to protect its critical infrastructure against future threats.
Public-private partnerships are essential for ensuring cyber resilience in India. Strengthening collaboration between the National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC) and private sectors—such as telecommunications and energy providers—can significantly enhance the country’s ability to prepare for cyber attacks. Establishing information-sharing networks across different industries will help create a cooperative defence ecosystem. A noteworthy example for India to consider is the successful defence model of Israel’s Cyber Defense Authority, which utilises public-private collaboration to combat ransomware attacks.
In addition, increasing cyber awareness and capacity-building programmes is crucial. Implementing public campaigns to educate citizens about phishing and social engineering attacks, along with integrating cybersecurity training into educational institutions, will cultivate a skilled workforce capable of mitigating risks. Similar initiatives in Singapore, where ongoing public education has led to a reduction in cybercrime, could serve to inspire India’s national strategy. Indian banks have already made some progress in decreasing phishing incidents through customer education, emphasising the importance of raising public awareness.
India also needs to establish regulatory frameworks for emerging technologies. Developing governance policies for the ethical deployment of artificial intelligence (AI) and establishing quantum research hubs will help ensure that innovation is balanced with security. This aligns with international initiatives such as the EU’s AI Act and the OECD’s AI principles, which aim to create global standards for the responsible use of AI.
To secure critical infrastructure, adopting zero-trust models is vital for preventing cascading failures across interconnected systems like power grids, transportation, and financial networks. The 2021 Mumbai power grid incident highlighted the risks associated with such attacks. By implementing zero-trust architectures in public infrastructure, along with prompt incident response protocols, India can better contain potential disruptions. The U.S. federal government serves as a model, as it has mandated zero-trust frameworks for all agencies, ensuring tighter control over sensitive systems.
Global cooperation will be crucial to India’s cybersecurity initiatives. Strengthening India’s participation in international alliances, such as the Global Forum on Cyber Expertise (GFCE), will enhance collaboration on artificial intelligence (AI) and quantum standards. As leading nations like the United States, European Union, and Japan work together on 5G and post-quantum security initiatives, India must position itself as a proactive partner in these global discussions. In conclusion, India’s ambition to become a global leader in AI, 5G, and quantum technologies requires a forward-thinking cybersecurity strategy. By implementing AI-driven threat detection, post-quantum encryption, zero-trust frameworks, and fostering public-private partnerships, the nation can safeguard its critical infrastructure and digital economy from emerging threats. Global collaboration, ongoing innovation, and comprehensive capacity-building programmes will further strengthen India’s resilience against new cyber challenges. By taking proactive measures and aligning with global best practices, India can build a secure and sustainable digital future.
Cybercrime Rok Foundation
An Initiative to Educate Citizens on Cybercrimes
Cybercrime Rok Foundation is a registered Trust under the Mumbai Public Trust Act. We received our registration certificate in August 2024. Previously known as “Cybercrime Rok,” the Foundation was established in 2012 by Shailesh Jaria and Vinith Jain with the mission of raising awareness among millions of mobile and internet users on how to stay safe online and protect themselves from various cybercrimes.
Our aim is to educate the public about the dangers of cybercrimes such as email hacking, phishing, smishing, vishing, online frauds, credit/debit card frauds, shopping frauds, fake online lotteries, identity theft, cyberstalking, harassment, cyberterrorism, and more. We focus on helping individuals understand how cybercriminals exploit the lack of awareness and use advanced technology to target victims.
Since our launch, Cybercrime Rok Foundation has conducted over 1,000 free seminars across India, including in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Goa, Delhi, Punjab, and more. These seminars have been held in schools, colleges, universities, NGOs, government institutions, and corporate offices. Our efforts have earned us recognition from World Record India for our outreach and commitment to raising awareness about cyber threats.
Our Seminars
We offer customised seminars based on the audience’s age group, ranging from 2 to 6 hours in length. During these sessions, we focus on educating attendees about the most common cybercrimes affecting their demographic, including scams, hacking, frauds, and identity theft. In addition, we discuss the psychological effects of excessive internet use, such as depression, emotional distress, online addiction, and the negative impact of fake publicity and social comparison.
Over the past 12 years, the CYBERCRINE ROK Foundation has conducted over 1,000 free seminars
and training programmes on Cybercrime Awareness in more than 10 States across IndiaOur seminars aim to empower individuals with practical knowledge to recognise, avoid, and
report cybercrimes. Topics covered include:
- How to identify and protect yourself from cybercrimes
- Steps to report cybercrimes effectively
- How to stay safe online
- Cybercrime-related laws and how to ensure data privacy
We also offer tailored workshops for specific issues like cyberbullying, sextortion, and scams targeting senior citizens.
Common Cybercrimes and Safety Measures
Email Hacking
Email hacking occurs when a cybercriminal gains unauthorised access to your email account using methods like keyloggers, phishing, or smishing. Once compromised, all your personal information— including emails, contacts, photos, and social media accounts—can be exposed.
Safety Measures
- Enable two-factor authentication for your email account.
- Be cautious of unsolicited emails or requests to update passwords.
- Over the past 12 years, the CYBERCRINE ROK Foundation has conducted over 1,000 free seminars and training programmes on Cybercrime Awareness in more than 10 States across India
- Use strong, unique passwords and avoid reusing passwords across accounts.
- Regularly review your email activity and avoid using password managers that store sensitive data.
Phishing
Phishing is an attack where cybercriminals trick you into disclosing sensitive information (like passwords or credit card details) by pretending to be legitimate organisations. Phishing can also lead to malware installation or data theft.
Safety Measures
- Always verify the sender of emails or messages before clicking on links or providing any personal information.
- Use anti-phishing tools and software to protect against malicious attacks.
- Be cautious when receiving unsolicited messages that offer deals or create a sense of urgency.
Smishing and Vishing
- Smishing: Phishing via SMS, often with fraudulent offers or urgent messages asking you to update your account or personal details.
- Vishing: Voice-based phishing, where attackers call to impersonate legitimate organisations and steal your personal or financial information. Safety Measures
- Avoid responding to unsolicited messages or calls.
- Never share personal details or financial information over the phone or through text messages.
- Verify the authenticity of any offers or updates by directly contacting the company or institution.
Electricity Bill Payment Scams
In this scam, criminals send fraudulent SMS messages claiming that your electricity bill is unpaid and demanding immediate payment to avoid power disconnection.
Safety Measures
- Ignore any unsolicited messages from unknown numbers claiming to be from the power company.
- Always pay your electricity bill through official channels and verify any overdue notices directly with the utility provider.
- Remember that power companies will never ask for payment through text messages or phone calls.
Credit/Debit Card Fraud
This type of fraud occurs when unauthorised individuals gain access to your credit or debit card information and use it for fraudulent purchases. Common methods include card cloning, skimming, and phishing.
Safety Measures
- Always monitor your bank statements and card notifications.
- Use mobile apps to lock your card and set spending limits for additional security.
- Avoid using public Wi-Fi to make online transactions.
- If you suspect fraud, immediately report it to your bank and block your card.
Sextortion
Sextortion is a form of blackmail where criminals coerce victims into sharing explicit photos or videos under threat of exposing them online.
Safety Measures
- Never share explicit images or videos, even with people you trust online.
- Be cautious of strangers who ask for private or personal content during video calls.
- Report any incidents of sextortion to the authorities and avoid paying any money to settle the matter.
Important Resources and Websites
- Cybercrime Helpline: Call 1930 for immediate assistance with cybercrime complaints.
- File a Complaint: Submit complaints online at cybercrime. gov.in.
- StopNCII.org: A free resource to support victims of non-consensual intimate images.
- TAFCOP: Use TAFCOP to check the number of mobile connections issued in your name.
- Have I Been Pwned: Check if your email has been compromised at haveibeenpwned.com.
- DND Service: Activate the Do Not Disturb (DND) service by sending an SMS to 1900 by typing “START0”
- Virus Total: Scan and check files for viruses at virustotal.com.
Cybercrime Rok Foundation is committed to educating individuals and organisations about the risks of cybercrime and providing tools and knowledge to protect against them. We believe that by empowering people with the right information, we can create a safer online environment for all.